Modern air carrier operations depend on more than individual piloting skill — they depend on a precisely coordinated division of labor between the two crew members occupying the flight deck. The Pilot Flying (PF) and Pilot Monitoring (PM) designations define who controls the aircraft and who oversees the entire operation at any given moment. This distinction is not merely administrative. It is a foundational element of Crew Resource Management (CRM) and one of the most tested and practically important concepts for candidates pursuing the Airline Transport Pilot (ATP) certificate.
Understanding these roles goes beyond knowing who holds the controls. It requires grasping how responsibilities shift dynamically during different phases of flight, how crews communicate clearly under pressure, and how both pilots actively contribute to safety even when one is not physically flying the aircraft. The FAA's Risk Management Handbook and Aviation Instructor's Handbook both emphasize that effective two-crew operations depend on shared situational awareness, disciplined call-outs, and assertive cross-monitoring — all grounded in well-defined roles.
How the Roles Are Defined
The Pilot Flying is the crew member who has primary responsibility for controlling the flight path of the aircraft at a given time. This includes manipulating the flight controls, managing the automation (autopilot and autothrottle), and making pitch, bank, and thrust decisions. The PF maintains the primary scan of flight instruments and is focused on precise aircraft control and navigation. However, the PF should never be so task-saturated with stick-and-rudder work that situational awareness suffers — automation management is a critical PF skill in modern glass-cockpit aircraft.
The Pilot Monitoring — a term the FAA and industry have deliberately chosen over the older "Pilot Not Flying" (PNF) label — actively monitors all aspects of the operation, including aircraft systems, ATC communications, checklists, approach briefings, fuel state, and the PF's control inputs. The word choice matters: "Monitoring" implies an active, engaged role, not a passive observer. The PM is the crew's safety net. Research cited in FAA CRM training materials shows that many incidents and accidents occur precisely when the PM fails to catch a PF error, or fails to speak up when one is identified.
Specific Duties by Phase of Flight
Preflight and Taxi
Role assignment typically occurs during crew briefing before the first flight of the day. The Captain and First Officer agree on who is PF for each leg. During taxi, the PF handles the tiller and thrust while the PM reviews taxi clearances, monitors for runway incursions, and confirms the aircraft is following the correct taxi route. AC 91-73 (Parts 91 and 135 Taxi Operations) underscores the importance of heads-up monitoring during ground movement — the PM's active role in confirming runway crossings and holding short instructions is a direct accident-prevention measure.
Takeoff and Departure
During the takeoff roll, the PM monitors airspeed, calls out critical airspeeds (V1, Vr, V2), watches for anomalies, and is ready to call an abort if a condition warrants. After liftoff, the PM handles ATC communication and gear/flap calls while the PF focuses on aircraft control and initial climb. Sterile cockpit rules under 14 CFR 121.542 restrict non-essential conversation below 10,000 feet MSL, reinforcing that both crew members must be fully task-focused during these high-workload phases.
Cruise
In cruise, workload is generally lower but vigilance must not decrease. The PF manages automation and flight path; the PM continues to cross-check systems, monitor fuel burn against planned consumption, review weather updates, and handle SELCAL or ACARS communications where applicable. Both pilots conduct periodic cross-checks of altimeter settings, FMS routing, and traffic. Even in benign cruise conditions, the PM's active monitoring posture is critical to catching subtle deviations before they become emergencies.
Approach and Landing
The approach phase represents the highest concentration of tasks and the highest statistical risk in commercial aviation. The PF flies the approach profile — whether hand-flown or via autopilot — while managing speed and configuration. The PM runs checklists, monitors approach progress against published minimums and stabilized approach criteria, and makes mandatory call-outs such as "1,000 above," "500 above," "approaching minimums," and "minimums." At decision altitude/height (DA/DH) or minimum descent altitude (MDA), the PM calls the decision point; if the PF does not have the required visual references, the PM must be prepared to reinforce the go-around call if the PF hesitates.
Non-Normal and Emergency Procedures
In abnormal situations, role discipline becomes most critical — and most difficult to maintain. The general principle is that the PF continues to fly the aircraft while the PM diagnoses the problem, references the QRH (Quick Reference Handbook), and executes checklist items as directed. This prevents the dangerous scenario where both pilots abandon flight path control to troubleshoot a malfunction. The FAA Risk Management Handbook specifically identifies task fixation as a CRM hazard; defined PF/PM roles are the structural defense against it. When conditions require (such as incapacitation), role transfer must be explicit, verbally announced, and acknowledged — never assumed.
Why It Matters: CRM and the Safety Record
The introduction of formal CRM training in the 1980s, partly driven by accident investigations such as the 1978 United Airlines DC-8 crash near Portland, Oregon (where crew resource mismanagement led to fuel exhaustion), demonstrated that technical skill alone is insufficient for safe crew operations. The FAA's Risk Management Handbook and Aviation Instructor's Handbook both trace the evolution of CRM as a response to accidents where hierarchy, poor communication, and undefined roles allowed preventable errors to compound into fatal outcomes.
Studies referenced in FAA CRM materials show that the majority of Part 121 accidents involve a chain of errors — and that a properly engaged PM is capable of breaking that chain. An assertive PM who challenges a PF deviation, calls out an unstabilized approach, or identifies an incorrect clearance readback is performing exactly the function the role demands. Airlines codify this in Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) requiring specific call-outs and crew responses, and the FAA expects ATP candidates to understand and apply these principles.
Key Numbers and Rules
- 14 CFR 121.542 / 135.100: Sterile cockpit rule — no non-essential activities or conversation during critical phases of flight (generally below 10,000 feet MSL during climb and descent, and during all ground movement phases).
- Stabilized approach criteria: Most operators require a stabilized approach by 1,000 feet AGL in IMC and 500 feet AGL in VMC; the PM is responsible for calling "unstabilized" and initiating the go-around challenge if criteria are not met.
- Role transfer: Transfer of PF duties must always be verbally explicit — "You have the aircraft" / "I have the aircraft" — and acknowledged before the transfer is complete.
- Crew incapacitation: If the PF becomes incapacitated, the PM assumes control, announces the transfer, and manages both flight path and emergency communications — a scenario regularly tested on ATP written and practical exams.
- Decision altitude call-outs: PM calls "minimums" at DA/DH; PF must announce "go-around" or "landing" — the decision belongs to the PF but the PM actively supports the decision process with timely call-outs.
Memory Aid
A practical way to remember the core distinction is the phrase "FLY, MONITOR, COMMUNICATE" applied by role:
- PF — FLY: The PF's primary task is always to fly the aircraft and manage the flight path, even when using automation.
- PM — MONITOR: The PM actively monitors all systems, the PF's actions, ATC instructions, and checklists — never passive.
- PM — COMMUNICATE: ATC communications are primarily the PM's responsibility during high-workload phases, freeing the PF to maintain aircraft control.
This three-part model reinforces that both seats carry active, essential responsibilities at all times. Neither crew member is "just along for the ride" at any point in the flight.
Common Test Traps
- "Pilot Not Flying" vs. "Pilot Monitoring": The FAA now uses "PM" specifically to emphasize the active monitoring role. Treating the non-flying pilot as passive will lead to wrong answers on CRM questions and dangerous habits in the cockpit.
- Who communicates with ATC: While generally the PM's job during high-workload phases, this can be delegated. The key is that whoever communicates must not be simultaneously burdened with precise aircraft control — the principle is workload management, not a rigid rule.
- Emergency role reversal: A common trap is assuming the more senior pilot (Captain) always takes the controls in an emergency. SOPs direct the current PF to continue flying unless a deliberate, announced role transfer occurs. Seniority does not automatically transfer control.
- Sterile cockpit altitude: The rule applies below 10,000 feet MSL during flight, but also covers all ground movement phases — students often forget the ground movement provision, which is a frequent test item.
- Go-around authority: Either crew member may call for a go-around; the PM does not need the PF's permission to announce an unsafe condition. However, the PF executes the maneuver — authority and execution are not the same thing, and conflating them is a common knowledge test error.